Getting Young Children to Wear Masks

Although wearing -- or not wearing -- a face mask may be a political statement in some parts of the country, here in the New York City area there seems to be a general consensus that masks are the best way to keep ourselves and others safe and most people seem to be wearing them when they can't be socially distanced from others.

In fact, families visiting our offices since we re-opened have been required to wear masks, not just in our offices, but even to enter the lobby of our building. It makes us all safer.

Children from older elementary age and up seem to "get it" and most that we have encountered are pretty good about keeping their mask on where necessary.

But what about getting young children to wear masks? This question takes on particular importance now that day care centers are starting to reopen and there is the possibility of at least some in-person school and preschool in the fall. Our colleagues at the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) note that children under age two should not wear face masks, since they can pose dangers of choking. But it is possible to help children older than two to use face masks appropriately and, as importantly, to understand why they are wearing a mask.

Young children can understand simple explanations that lots of people have been getting sick and that wearing a mask is a helpful way to keep everyone healthy. Little kids love to be helpers and this kind of language should appeal to them. Slightly older children may understand the idea of germs and that masks help keep germs away from them and from other people too.

It is not just young children who may need extra support and guidance around mask wearing. Children who have sensory sensitivities may be unable to tolerate mask wearing, especially for  an extended time. Trying different kinds of masks, using clear face shields that provide some barrier while not closely covering the mouth and nose, and practicing mask wearing to build up additional tolerance may all help.

Other ways parents can help children become comfortable with wearing a mask, as suggested by the AAP, include:

• Look in the mirror with the face coverings on and talk about it.

• Put a cloth face covering on a favorite stuffed animal.

• Decorate them so they're more personalized and fun.

• Show your child pictures of other children wearing them.

• Draw one on their favorite book character.

  In addition to the ideas noted above, the most effective way to teach your child the importance of mask wearing, as it is with most things, is to model the behavior yourself. If parents are matter of fact about the need to wear a mask outside the house where social distancing isn't guaranteed, their children, even preschoolers, will be more likely to accept mask wearing as something they need to do, like wearing shoes or a jacket. There may be some resistance, but compliance will be far easier.

New Book Series for Young Music Students

A new series of books, Having Fun with Music - The Young Child's Piano Book is a wonderful and creative way to introduce young children to the joys of music. The first and second volumes of this series are now available and the third book is due out this summer. The books were written by Lori J. Lerman, who has taught voice and piano to children and adults for over 30 years, along with other accomplishments too numerous to mention. Your blogger has been friends with the author since seventh grade and can attest to her deep love of and experience with teaching music. Each book incorporates teacher's notes, explaining the concept behind the lesson, how to use the lesson, and additional activities to extend what is being taught. The books are designed for children from kindergarten through third grade, but can be used for younger children who show an interest in piano or older children with little or no musical background. 

In a few years, this baby will be ready to learn piano with this excellent series.

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When I asked Lori why she wrote this series, she explained, "My Master’s degree is in Reading and Language Education, so I’ve always been particularly interested in the connection between learning language and learning music. Young children learn language in well-known stages. First they learn to understand speech, then they learn to speak themselves. Eventually, once they're fluent in spoken language, they learn to understand it in written form. Music is a language, and it should be taught to young beginners in the same series of steps. It would be ridiculous to teach children to read and write before they know how to talk, and it’s just as silly to teach them to read music before they actually understand what it means.

"I’m writing the Having Fun with Music series to try to incorporate what we know about language into the process of learning music, using the same series of steps. The early activities use listening, singing, movement, and keyboard improvisation to create “fluency” in the language of music. Once this process has gotten started, the child then begins to learn written notation as a way to take the sounds they already recognize and understand, and recreate them on paper.

"The most important part of the series, I think, is that its main goal is to make piano lessons enjoyable for young children. Every lesson has instructions for parents and teachers on the facing page, including suggestions for optional activities and ideas for using a floor keyboard or incorporating movement. Songs are introduced through singing and games before the child is asked to play them. The parent or teacher is urged to use whatever ideas and suggestions seem appropriate for their own child and to spend as much or as little time on each activity as their individual child seems to prefer. Since young children love repetition and need to repeat skills they have mastered, reviewing activities already completed is greatly encouraged. Rather than progress quickly through the book and then move on to the next, children can spend as much time as they like repeating and enjoying their favorite songs and games."

Books for Young Children

A number of years ago, we looked at a program called, A Book on Every Bed, which was designed to encourage families celebrating Christmas to leave a book on every child's bed, so that he or she would wake up Christmas morning with the special gift of a book.

Even though Christmas has come and gone this year, we were reminded of this initiative just yesterday, when your blogger "played hooky" and took a one-day trip from New York to Washington D.C. to spend time with her new grandson.

This baby is surrounded by books. They are part of his life long before he can even speak, let alone read. His parents have been the beneficiaries of numerous gifts of books - classics they recall from their own childhoods and new books that are destined to be classics in years to come. They have started reading to him even though he is only a few weeks old.

But too many children aren't as fortunate. We know that reading to and with children builds crucial skills that stay with children as they grow and develop. That's why we have been big fans of the national nonprofit organization, Reach Out and Read (ROAR), which we have written about before. Building on the fact that over 90 percent of young children are seen in a pediatric practice at least once a year, ROAR provides training to doctors, nurses, and nurse practitioners in how to talk to parents about the importance of reading to their children; how to demonstrate to parents how to interact with their children while reading - including cuddling and setting reading routines; and then gives a new book to each child to take home and keep.

If your child lives a life rich in books and reading, you may want to learn more about  Reach Out and Read, and express your gratitude by helping a less fortunate child to know the same joy of books and the benefits that reading brings.

Photo by Picsea on Unsplash

Some Old-News Updates on Best Practices

Two articles you may have missed in The New York Times reiterate some important points about how to help children with two very different but very common difficulties – anxiety and disruptive behavior. 

The first article, an opinion piece written by Dr. Perri Klass, whose work and writing have been featured in a number of our blog posts (check out her other informative pieces in The Times here), reports on a meta-analysis that investigated the effectiveness of different therapies and drugs used to treat a variety of anxiety disorders in children. To read the meta-analysis on your own, see the reference at the bottom of this post. A meta-analysis is a large research undertaking that combines the results of many smaller studies to get a better idea of the big picture. This meta-analysis looked at a combined total of 7,719 patients between the ages of five and sixteen. As expected, the researchers found that exposure-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a preferred treatment. With this type of therapy, children as young as five years old are exposed to what makes them anxious so that they can practice dealing with the triggers with support, while they simultaneously work on changing how they think about the things that make them feel bad. The researchers also found that the newer types of anti-depressants can be helpful, but they are best when used in combination with therapy (and they were found to be not as effective when used alone, as compared to the exposure-based CBT).

For those of us working in the field, this meta-analysis didn’t really tell us anything groundbreaking. It does, however, get the message out that there is an evidence-based way to help children who are suffering from the kind of anxiety that interferes with their ability to function at home and school. It also reiterates, for parents and caregivers who are seeking help, the importance of finding a therapist who focuses on this type of therapy in her or his work with anxious children.

The second Times article, from October, is another opinion piece, published in the Fixes column, and written by Suzanne Bouffard. In her column, Bouffard describes the process of Collaborative Problem Solving, a technique developed by Ross Greene, who wrote a book we love to recommend at The Yellin Center - The Explosive Child. Bouffard begins by describing the typical disciplinary methods used at many schools, even preschools, across the country. Children are typically removed from the educational environment as a disciplinary measure - they may be put in time out, forced to complete useless assignments as punishment, or even suspended from kindergarten. The main point that Bouffard makes here, and that is at the foundation of my field - school psychology - is that these exclusionary tactics may temporarily stifle unwanted behaviors, but they are also often psychologically harmful and, even more importantly, do not teach our youngest students what they should be doing instead. There’s an unfortunate persistent idea that kids behave well when they want to, but the truth is that kids behave well when they can. Taking a child who struggles with regulating her behavior and excluding her from the classroom and putting her in isolation, for example, does absolutely nothing to help her practice the skills she needs to do better next time.

Collaborative problem solving was described in one of my previous posts on this blog. Bouffard’s piece takes the philosophy behind it and puts it in a very real context, with real examples of families who have seen what a difference it can make. I highly recommend reading the article and thinking deeply about the kind of discipline your child experiences at home and at school. It offers us the opportunity to ask ourselves some potentially difficult questions about whether we’re really using what the field of psychology likes to call best practices when helping our children and our students grow into well-adjusted citizens.



Wang, Z., Whiteside, S. P., Sim, L., Farah, W., Morrow, A. S., Alsawas, M., ... & Daraz, L. (2017). Comparative Effectiveness and Safety of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Pharmacotherapy for Childhood Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Jama Pediatrics, 171(11), 1049-1056.



Photo by Michał Parzuchowski on Unsplash

Helping Young Children Start the School Year

Starting a new school year is a big adjustment for a child at any age, but it can be particularly disorienting for very young children. Preschool- and kindergarten-aged kids are comforted by routines, and so their first time in even the best of classrooms with the most insightful and empathetic of teachers can be a challenge. Here are some ways you can start now, during summer vacation, to ensure your little one’s year gets off to a great start.

• Start setting your child’s biological clock. Summer sleep schedules with later wake-up times can take a while to undo, and your child may launch her first day at school cranky and sleepy if you don’t plan ahead. At least a week before her first day, get her used to the new schedule by dimming the lights in her play area an hour before her school-year bedtime. Be sure to offer her toys or books instead of electronics in the hour before she goes to bed; the quality of light emitted by screens stimulates the brain and makes it tougher to drift off to sleep later. Get her ready for bed following the same routine you anticipate using during the school year (pajamas, brushing teeth, etc.). Similarly, wake her up at the same time she’ll get up on school days and take her through her anticipated school-day morning routine. Learning these steps in advance means your child has one less new procedure to learn when school begins.

• Visit the school a few days before the first day. Narrate the trip there in an excited tone of voice so that the route will feel familiar to your child when you report to the school on the first day. If you can, pop into your child’s classroom and explore the playground. This will help your child begin to visualize what school will be like and help her to feel more at ease on the first day.

• Familiarize your child with his new teacher by referring to her by name instead of saying “your teacher.” If you can find a picture of his teacher on the school website, print it and hang it in a prominent place so she’ll look familiar to your child on the first day. 

• Role play circle time, lining up for lunch, and show and tell with your child so she’ll know what to expect. Play the part of the teacher and recruit stuffed animals or siblings to act as her classmates. 

• Model a positive attitude. When you feel anxious or tired, verbalize your feelings and talk through your plan for energizing yourself and realigning your positive thinking. (“Wow, I’m feeling really worried about tomorrow’s big meeting! I guess feeling a little nervous before a big day is normal. I think I’ll listen to some music I like and imagine myself doing really well in the meeting.”) Watching you will help your child realize that these feelings are normal and give him some strategies for coping with them. 

• Instead of asking if your child is nervous about beginning school, casually ask how your child is feeling about the new year. Resist asking whether your child feels nervous; this suggests that there is something to be nervous about! If your child is behaving normally and doesn’t give you any reason to worry, it’s best to keep worst-case scenario preparations for the initial separation under your hat. Your child will take cues from you about how to feel about the first day.

• If your child seems anxious or you’ve had difficulty with separation in the past, choose something she can bring to school that reminds her of her family. An article of clothing or piece of inexpensive jewelry is an especially good choice because your child can touch it whenever she needs comfort during the day without having to go to her backpack. Give her a bracelet of yours or let her borrow her brother’s lucky bandana. 

One big no-no: Don’t sneak away on the first day. Although this seems like a good idea for the child who tears up every time you take a step toward the door, resist the urge to wait until his back is turned to disappear. Such behavior can do damage to your child’s trust in you, resulting in the fear that you could vanish at any moment. Instead, assure your child that you love him, that you’re leaving him in a very safe place that you have chosen carefully, and that you will see him in four hours, then bite your lip and leave. Chances are good that you’ll have to pry him away from his new friends by pick-up time.

Attachment

Anyone who has taken Psychology 101 or Introduction to Child Development has spent some time learning about the history of attachment theory and its creators, John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth – practically household names among those in the psychology or education fields. Like most topics in an introductory course, it’s hard to see how this 60-year-old theory, often demonstrated through fuzzy videos of a Strange Situation experiment, applies to modern day parenting and child development. A recent article in The New York Times by pediatrician Perri Klass, however, brings the relevance of attachment theory into the 21st century and discusses how pediatricians can use it to monitor the parent-child relationship. The goal, according to Dr. Klass, is for pediatricians to pay attention to how parents and babies interact at the one-year checkup, and to provide parents with strategies for developing a more secure, responsive connection to the child if warranted.

Attachment is the reciprocal bond that forms between parent and child. Evolutionarily, it keeps children safe; parents are hard-wired to want to keep an eye on the child, and the child is hard-wired to use the parent as a secure base from which to safely explore her environment. When parents are tuned into and responsive to an infant’s and growing child’s needs, that child feels safe and secure, and develops the idea that the world is a trustworthy and exciting place. When parents are having difficulty demonstrating a consistent, responsive style of parenting, the baby or young child may demonstrate an anxious, insecure attachment response. This means that the baby or child may not seek comfort from the parent, or may avoid the parent in stressful situations. This is a sign that the infant or child is experiencing more stress than would be expected based on the situation. All babies and children depend on their caregivers to regulate their levels of stress and other emotions. Therefore, when parents are not always available to respond to a young child’s needs, that young child will endure more stress and will have difficulty developing appropriate coping skills for stressful situations.

With newborns and very young children, being responsive means attending to the child’s every need, and helping them work through stressful situations by providing physical and verbal comfort. As children get older, however, finding that balance of responsiveness and allowing independence becomes trickier. The goal for any human is to eventually move farther and farther away from the parent, until they have developed the coping skills necessary to explore the world independently. Parents who tune into their children right from the start can begin to learn the cues for when it’s time to step back, and when they are still very much needed to provide comfort. As children get older, they learn, through their parents’ actions, that they can depend on their parents to be there when needed, and therefore they feel safe enough to inch further and further away.

The article in The New York Times encourages pediatricians to help parents monitor their own responses to their young children, and to offer support when an insecure attachment style is developing. Every child is resilient, and children who were insecurely attached during infancy can develop a secure attachment later on. Most importantly, parents should feel comfortable talking to their care providers, whether it’s the pediatrician or the nursery school teacher, about how to help foster that secure bond. Every relationship, but especially the early attachment bond, is a two-way street. If something is getting in the way of a parent being physically and emotionally available for their child, that parent deserves help and support. As the importance of attachment theory continues to spread, we hope that pediatricians and other professionals who work with families will be available to help parents and caregivers find that support, and to help families feel that asking for help is the first step to success.

ADHD Treatments for Young Children - A New Study

A new study just released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) finds that while more than 75% of young children (ages 2-5) with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are prescribed medication, only about half receive behavior therapy* to address their attention difficulties.

 

This preference for medicating young children runs counter to the clinical guidelines established by the American Academy of Pediatrics, which in 2011 recommended:

"For preschool-aged children (4–5 years of age), the primary care clinician should prescribe evidence-based … behavior therapy as the first line of treatment and may prescribe [medication] if the behavior interventions do not provide significant improvement and there is moderate-to-severe continuing disturbance in the child's function."

The AAP guidelines go on to caution that, “…in areas where evidence-based behavioral treatments are not available, the clinician needs to weigh the risks of starting medication at an early age against the harm of delaying diagnosis and treatment.” The AAP noted that even students whose attention difficulties do not rise to the diagnostic criteria of ADHD may benefit from a behavioral approach to their attention issues.

The CDC study observed that approximately 6.4 million U.S. children ages 4-17 years had a diagnosis of ADHD in 2011-12, which was an increase of 42% increase compared to 2003. The study used insurance claims for psychological services (which includes behavior therapy) and ADHD medication from both Medicaid and private insurance to determine the frequency with which each approach was utilized. 

The CDC reported that the strength of evidence for behavior therapy exceeds that for ADHD medications. It noted that behavior therapy might require more time to impact child behavior and might require more resources but that the impact lasts longer relative to ADHD medication and does not have the side effects associated with these medications. Most of these side effects are minor but they are experienced by approximately 30% of children aged 3–5 years who take ADHD medications and more than 10 % of the children in this group stopped medication treatment because of such side effects.

Here at The Yellin Center we always recommend behavioral strategies for school and home when dealing with attention issues. When appropriate, we can also provide consultation and ongoing prescription management for medications, but we strongly believe that medication should only be considered in the context of a student's overall educational plan, and never thought of as a "quick fix" for school difficulties.

*Behavior therapy in this context includes any psychological interventions that are designed to change problem behaviors, including ADHD symptoms, by modifying the physical or social contexts in which the behavior occurs and can be delivered to the child by a therapist, teacher, parent, or other provider.

Encouraging Young Children’s Speech

Speech delays can be scary for the parents of young children, but a toddler whose language lags behind his or her peers is not necessarily a cause for panic. Although guidelines for young children’s speech development exist, the range that is considered normal is wide. Furthermore, some very young children who exhibit speech delays catch up with their peers and have no difficulty learning when they begin school. (Since speech delays can be an indicator of some serious problems, however, concerned parents should still speak to their pediatrician about how to obtain a formal evaluation if a child over 24 months old seems to be having an unusually difficult time understanding language or using and pronouncing words.)

No matter the cause of a speech delay, everyday interactions with toddlers are critical opportunities for learning. Even children who receive formal intervention will learn best if they have frequent, high quality linguistic interactions with people they love inserted into their daily routines.

We’ve compiled some tips from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Reading Rockets, and our own experience and knowledge for parents of young children who seem to exhibit speech delays.

What you’ll see below are suggestions for ways to encourage very young children to understand and use language and to model language in helpful ways. What you won’t see are suggestions about correcting children. The reason? Children struggling to use language can become frustrated when they are unable to make themselves understood, especially when it seems so easy for everyone else. Correcting a young child can cause negative associations with speech and language use. Modeling, on the other hand, provides a positive example instead of a rebuke.

Tips for Encouraging Early Speech

Even if you don’t understand what your child is saying, acknowledge the attempt to communicate. Smile and make eye contact with your child. This will encourage him to keep trying. If you need clarification, commend the child for trying and then ask for a gesture by saying, “I’m so glad you’re using your words! Can you help more? Show me what you want.”

If you can understand, repeat what your child says so that she’ll know you understood her. Even better, show your child how she can add more words to her sentence by expanding it for her. If your child points and says, “juice,” say, “Would you like some juice? I hear Lucy saying, ‘I want some juice, please!’”

All people learn new words best when they’re presented repeatedly in context. To help your child learn a word, use it frequently in sentences. For example, if it is clear that your child doesn’t know the word toast at breakfast, say, “Here is a piece of toast for you. I’ll have some toast, too! I put some butter on your toast. I’ll have some butter on my toast, too. My toast is still warm. Is your toast warm? Toast is great with eggs!”

Repeating a child’s utterance will help her to feel validated, and it may even help prevent tantrums! Some children melt down when they’re told “no” because they’re frustrated that their desire hasn’t been understood. If your child wriggles and exclaims “Up!” on an airplane, say, “I know. You want to get up. I understand. I’m sorry, but we can’t get up. We have to sit. The rules are we have to sit for now. It will keep us safe. We can get up soon. For now, let’s look at this book.”

Avoid speaking in the third person (e.g. saying “Mommy is here!” if you are Mommy). Pronouns like I and me are difficult for young children to grasp, and they need to hear as many examples of correct use as possible. Speak to your child as you would to an adult, albeit with clearer, short sentences.

To help children understand pronouns, incorporate them into play. Using two dolls or figurines, act out interactions. This is especially helpful when talking about possessions; very young children have a tough time with mine versus yours. For example, you might show one dinosaur “saying,” while nudging a crayon to a Lego man, “This blue crayon is yours.” The Lego man can then ask, “Really? It is mine? It is for me? It’s mine?” The dinosaur can reply, “Yes, it is yours,” and the Lego man can reply, “Hooray, it’s mine! Thank you!” Invite children to participate in the dialogue if they are able.

Demonstrate the right word if your child uses the wrong one. If your child points to a piece of ribbon and says, “Rope,” say, “Look at the ribbon! It looks like the ribbon your sister wears in her hair. That ribbon is red, just like your sister’s ribbon. Sometimes people use ribbons on birthday presents.”

As much as possible, avoid questions that can be answered with yes and no to give your child the opportunity to practice using other words. Provide multiple choices so that your child has language to imitate; this gives him the chance to use words without having to generate them himself. Ask, “Do you want to wear the red shirt, or the blue shirt?” or “What do you see the other kids doing? Are they swinging or running or sliding?”

Pairing words with actions will help children to remember them. This works best with verbs; demonstrate the actions when you say, “clap your hands,” “jump,” or “nod your head.” Encourage kids to do the same.

Songs’ rhythms, rhymes, and melodies make them excellent for cementing language in memory. Children’s songs, like the ones sung by the legendary Raffi, are great for building language. Worried you’ll lose your mind? Play albums by The Beatles, Cat Stevens or any other band that writes catchy, short songs sung with clear diction.

Reading is a wonderful way to introduce language to kids. (Talking to your child is no substitute for reading, by the way; studies show that books expose children to a wider variety of words than those used in everyday speech, and the pictures help them make meaning from the new vocabulary.) After you’ve read a book a few times to your child, ask them to tell you what is happening on a particular page, using the picture as a scaffold. Follow the tips above to show your child that you understand them and model some expanded sentences. As your child’s language develops, ask her to retell story as you turn the pages, using the pictures to help her structure her narrative.

The Benefits of Reading to Young Children

Pediatrician and journalist Perri Klass is a leading advocate of reading to young children, and has long been involved in Reach Out and Read, a national organization that works through health providers to distribute books to parents of young children, many of whom could not afford to purchase them on their own.

Dr. Klass notes, in a recent New York Times article, that although studies have looked at what happens when parents speak to their children, there had not been extensive research on the specific impact of reading to a child, as opposed to just talking to them. She shares that two new studies shed new light on just what happens when children are read to and the benefits this can have for learning and development.

In one study, researchers used a form of functional MRI to map the areas of the brain that were activated when preschool children listened to stories. They determined that those who had been read to more frequently at home showed greater activation of brain areas supporting mental imagery and narrative comprehension. The brain region that was activated is the same one that is used when older children are reading to themselves and the researchers believe that children who build their brain circuits by being read to when they are young may be better equipped to make the transition to reading on their own when they are older.

Another study looked at a group of picture books often used when reading to young children. The researchers found that these picture books contained more unique types of words than were found when parents spoke directly to their children. They concluded that the text of picture books may be an important source of vocabulary for young children.

A benefit that was not quantified by these studies is the joy for both parent and child of sitting together, cuddled up, and sharing a book. Parents of young children may get tired of reading the same favorite story over and over and over, but early childhood is fleeting. Besides, many years later, you will probably be able to remember all the words to those books you read aloud dozens of times!

Learning and the Brain

Last week, I had the pleasure of attending a Learning & the Brain conference entitled “Educating World-Class Minds: Using Cognitive Science to Create 21st Century Schools.” I attended my first Learning & the Brain conference when I was an undergraduate and just beginning to explore the fields of psychology and education. The conference organizers would likely be heartened to know that my passion for learning about learning has only grown since. A theme running through the various workshops, keynote addresses, and sessions in this year’s program was the importance of helping students to become independently driven learners, ready to dynamically engage with a globalized and technology-infused world. This theme was conveyed not only through the presentations themselves but on a meta-level, as I took note of my fellow attendees holding up their iPads to take pictures of slides, sharing that information via a few keystrokes and clicks, and conversing with each other about how this learning fits in with their previous experiences as well as their anticipated developments.

One presentation included reference to some particularly interesting research suggesting the importance of inquiry. In a 2011 study at MIT, an experimenter presented four-year-olds with a toy. In one condition, she acted surprised when pulling on one of the toy’s various tubes and finding, as if by accident, that the toy then squeaked. In another condition, she provided direct instruction regarding how to make the tube squeak. When left alone to play with the toy, children in both conditions pulled the tube to produce a squeak. However, children in the first condition played with the toy longer and discovered more of its features, i.e., what happens when engaging with its other tubes. A 2011 study at UC-Berkeley expanded on this research by presenting a music-playing toy to a group of four-year-olds. The experimenter showed the children five successful sequences of action interspersed with four unsuccessful ones to make the toy play music. In one condition, she took a curiosity stance (“Wow, look at this toy. I wonder how it works. Let’s try this.”), and in another condition, she provided direct instruction (“Here’s how my toy works.”). Many children in the first condition figured out the most efficient way to get the toy to play music, i.e., with fewer steps than had been demonstrated, whereas children in the second condition imitated the experimenter exactly.

The implications of this research are significant in the context of a world in which facts can be quickly retrieved via technology, and critical thinking and entrepreneurship are increasingly in demand. Educators must take into account these realities and use the best tools we have available to create thinkers as well as knowers.

One unexpected highlight for me was running into my sixth grade math teacher. I confirmed his identity after, for the first time ever, asking him a question without first raising my hand. Whereas our roles as student and teacher were clearly defined to my sixth grade self, our new dynamic illustrated something important about education. Side by side, taking notes and asking questions, we were both students. The importance of this, that educators and practitioners be continually learning and questioning, is particularly salient in the context of our rapidly evolving Information Age. I was grateful for the opportunity to be one amongst many eager students at this stimulating conference, with presenters emphasizing their positions as lifelong learners as well. Meanwhile, the “thinking cap” we were taught to wear in the classroom is an accessory that should be in fashion regardless of setting or age, and it was a privilege to exchange a tip of the hat with an old teacher as well as many others at the informative and thought-provoking Learning & the Brain conference.